Call function with a specific default argument in JavaScript?

One option uses the "object as first argument" as you've described, but the syntax is a bit odd. Consider:

function foo({a, b=0}) { console.log(a,b); }

This defines a function which requires an object as a first argument, and imposes structural constraints on that object. In particular, the following will work:

foo({a:1});            // output: 1 0
foo({a:1, b:2});       // output: 1 2
foo({});               // output: undefined 0
foo({a:1, b:2, c: 3}); // output: 1 2 /* c is ignored */

While the following will throw an error:

foo(); // TypeError: Cannot destructure property `a` of 'undefined' or 'null'

Another option, which is something you see a lot, is an idiom of the form:

function foo(some_object) { let {a,b} = some_object; console.log(a,b); }

Both of these are instances of destructuring. As far as I know it's the closest you'll get to python-like syntax (this answer gives perhaps some more exposition and I give a perhaps too thorough analysis of the formal language which explains the observed effects ES6 destructuring object assignment function parameter default value)

You can specify undefined for the values you want to default. This works because omitted values are also undefined. In your case, this would be:

function foo(a, b, c = 0, d = 10, e = false) {
  // ...
}

// call:
foo("bar", "skurr", undefined, undefined, true);

Note that the above example is bad practice. If you have more than a few parameters (arguments), you should consider using objects and destructuring instead:

function foo({a, b, c = 0, d = 10, e = false} = {}) {
  // ...
}

// call:
foo({a: "bar", b: "skurr", e: true});